![]() ![]() Changes in international norms later restricted the practice of gunboat diplomacy to states, as private navies became illegitimate. European exceptionalism reflected a structural trade deficit, regional systemic dynamics favoring armed trade, and mercantilist beliefs. In contrast, large and small non-Western polities almost never sought to advance mercantile aims through naval coercion. For the majority of the modern era, violence was central to the commercial strategies of European state, private, and hybrid actors alike in the wider world. Comparisons between civilizations and across time show, first, that gunboat diplomacy was peculiarly European and, second, that it evolved through stages. ![]() 1500 reflected distinctively maritime dynamics, especially “gunboat diplomacy,” or the use of naval force for commercial gain. The making of the international system from c. ![]()
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